okładka

Vol. 25 No. 1 (2015)

ISSN:
1427-7476

Section: Eseje

The Road to Nuremberg. The Genesis of Judiciary Settling Accounts with Crimes of the Third Reich

Remembrance and Justice, Vol. 25 No. 1 (2015), pages: 79-111

Publication date: 2015-06-30

Abstract

The Road to Nuremberg. The Genesis of Judiciary Settling Accounts with Crimes of the Third Reich The first reported court trials for war crimes concerned offenses committed during the American Civil War (1861–1865). After World War I, the victorious nations of the Entente attempted to put the former German Emperor Wilhelm II and other German military leaders responsible for particularly drastic crimes. The former ruler took refuge in the Netherlands, which refused to extradite him, and the Reich Tribunal in Leipzig held a number of trials under heavy pressure from the victorious coalition. The majority of them led to acquittals or exceptionally short sentences, which resulted in the Leipzig process being labelled a travesty of justice; during World War II the allies regarded it as a negative experience which they should avoid repeating at all costs. During the period 1919–1920 several dozen trials concerning the slaughter of Armenians were held in Turkey by Turkish and British authorities, but they were equally inadequate for the scale of the crimes committed involving the murder of almost a million people. The anti-Hitler coalition thus could not draw on any real examples from the past when seeking to account for the crimes of the Third Reich and its allies, nor were there any international legal regulations or institutional solutions that they could look to. The first action taken to document the crimes committed in occupied countries were undertaken by governments-in-exile in London, primarily that of the Republic of Poland. It was pressure from that as well as other governments as well as others which led to the formation of the War Crimes Commission in October 1943, which developed a new legal concept and category: crimes against humanity. It turned out to be key in enforcing liability for crimes against civilians; it was invoked during the Nuremberg trials, and is also applied in many contemporary criminal proceedings. The first joint Allied commitment to prosecuting war crimes was the Moscow Declaration of 1 November 1943, but even after its adoption there were serious disagreements among the allies as to how this should be done. Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, was opposed to the creation of an international tribunal, citing the different legal systems of the Allies and the fiasco of the Leipzig trials following World War I; he was a supporter of summarily executing the leaders of the Third Reich and fascist Italy. The legal framework of the post-war trials was only developed during the closing months of the war, with American politicians and lawyers playing a key role. Their contribution was to base the most important post-war trials on three pillars: the categories of crimes against humanity, crimes against peace and the charge of conspiracy to commit crimes (a direct transplant from the American legal system). The trials held before the International Military Tribunal, held in Nuremberg from 20 November to 1 October 1946, were an attempt, unprecedented in the history of civilization, by the international community to bring to justice the leaders of a defeated state to justice for their crimes. In spite of the numerous criticism levelled against various aspects of the Nuremberg trials, it ultimately became a point of reference and an example for later attempts at placing political and military leaders on trial for their crimes.

- Eric Foner, Reconstruction. America`s Unfinished Revolution, 1963–1877, New York, Harper and Rowe, 1988

- Franciszek Ryszka, Norymberga. P rehistoria i ciąg dalszy, Warszawa, Czytelnik, 1982

- Gary J. Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance. The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2000

- Arieh J. Kochavi, Prelude to Nuremberg. Allied War Crimes Policy and the Question of Punishment, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1998

- Jurgen Matthäus, The Lessons of Leipzig. Punishing War Criminals after the First World War [w:] Atrocities on Trial. Historical Perspectives on the Politics of Prosecuting War Crimes, red. P. Heberer, J. Matthäus, Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 2008, s. 9–18

- Taner Akçam, A Shameful Act. The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility, New York, Picador, 2006

- Norman Naimark, Fires of Hatred. Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth Century Europe, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2001

- Grzegorz Kucharczyk, Pierwszy holocaust XX wieku, Warszawa, Fronda, 2004

- Yves Ternon, Ormianie. Historia zapomnianego ludobójstwa, tłum. W. Brzozowski, Kraków, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, 2005

- Bartosz Bolechów, Terroryzm w świecie podwubiegunowym. Przewartościowania i kontynuacje, Toruń Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, 2003

- Elżbieta Kobierska-Motas, Rząd polski na emigracji wobec problemu dokumentowania niemieckich przestępstw wojennych, „Pamięć i Sprawiedliwość. Biuletyn GKBZpNP” 1995, s. 175–176

- Franciszek Ryszka, U progu Norymbergi. Ściganie zbrodni wojennych w projektach polskich władz emigracyjnych, „Czasopismo Prawno-Historyczne” 1978, z. 2, s. 155-186

- Waldemar Grabowski, Polska tajna administracja cywilna 1940–1945, Warszawa, IPN, 2003

- Adam Puławski, W obliczu Zagłady. Rząd RP na Uchodźstwie, Delegatura Rządu RP na Kraj, ZWZ-AK wobec deportacji Żydów do obozów zagłady (1941–1942), Lublin, IPN, 2009

- Eugeniusz Duraczyński, Rząd polski na uchodźstwie 1939–1945. Organizacja, personalia, polityka, Warszawa, „Książka i Wiedza”, 1993

- Dariusz Stola, Nadzieja i zagłada. Ignacy Schwarzbart – żydowski przedstawiciel w Radzie Narodowej RP (1940–1945), Oficyna Nuakowa, Warszawa 1995

- Tadeusz Cyprian, Jerzy Sawicki, Ludzie i sprawy Norymbergi, Poznań, Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1967,

- Joe J. Heydecker i Johannes Leeb, Proces w Norymberdze, tłum. M. Zeller, Warszawa, Świat Książki, 2006

- G. Ginsburgs, Moscow`s Road to Nuremberg. The Soviet Background to the Trial, Hague, Springer, 1996

- B.F. Smith, The Road to Nuremberg, New York 1981

- Edward T. Linenthal, Preserving Memory. The Struggle to Create America`s Holocaust Museum, New York, Viking, 2001

- Tomasz Kranz, Majdanek w świetle prasy amerykańskiej z 1944 r., „Zeszyty Majdanka” 1993, s. 335-346

- Janina Kiełboń, Edward Balawejder, Państwowe Muzeum na Majdanku w latach 1944–1947. Wybór dokumentów, Lublin, Państwowe Muzeum na Majdanku, 2004

-David Irving, Norymberga. Ostatnia bitwa, tłum. B. Zborski, Warszawa, Prima, 1999

- Catherine Merridale, Wojna Iwana. Armia Czerwona 1939–1945, Poznań, Dom Wydawniczy Rebis 2007

- Norman Naimark, The Russians in Germany. A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949, Cambridge, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1995

- William I. Hitchcock, Liberation. The Bitter Road to Freedom, Europe 1944–1945, London, Free Press 2009

- H.A. Buechner, Dachau. The Hour of the Avenger (An Eyewitness Account), Metaire 1986,

- Joshua M. Greene, Sprawiedliwość w Dachau. Opowieść o procesach nazistów, Warszawa, Świat Ksiązki, 2012

- Konrad H. Jarausch, Po Hitlerze. Powrót Niemców do cywilizowanego świata 1945–1995, Poznań, Wydawnictwo Nauka i Innowacje, 2013

- Timothy Snyder, Skrwawione ziemie. Europa między Hitlerem a Stalinem, tłum. B. Pietrzyk, Warszawa, Świat Ksiązki 2011

- Peter Novick, The Holocaust in American Life, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co, 1999

- Wiliam A. Schabas, Raphael Lemkin, Genocide and Crimes against Humanity [w:] Rafał Lemkin. A Hero of Humankind, red. A. Bieńczyk-Missala, Sławomir Dębski, Warszawa 2010, s. 233-256

- Ann Tusa, John Tusa, The Nuremberg Trial, London, Macmillan, 1993

- Telford Taylor, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials. A Personal Memoir, Boston 1992,

- Arkady Vaksberg, Stalin`s Prosecutor. The Life of Andrei Vyshinsky, New York, Grove Pr, 1991

- Tadeusz Żaczek, Antoni Pajdak 1894–1988. Uczestnik walk o niepodległą Polskę od Legionów do Solidarności, Warszawa, Comandor, 2004

- Bradley F. Smith, Reaching Judgment at Nuremberg, New York 1977

- Kristen Sellers, Imperfect Justice at Nuremberg and Tokyo, „The European Journal of International Law” 2011, nr 4, s. 1085-1102

- Christian Tomuschat, The Legacy of Nuremberg, „Journal of International Criminal Justice” 2006, nr 4, s. 830-844

okładka

Vol. 25 No. 1 (2015)

ISSN:
1427-7476

Data publikacji:
2015-06-30

Dział: Eseje